A  Study on the Interplay Between Social Media Attitudes and Spirituality in Higher Education

Jonald De Leon

doi:10.63130/hijcre.v2i1.185

Authors

Jonald De Leon Holy Angel University https://orcid.org/0009-0003-1661-3346

Abstract

Social media has become a significant part of modern life, prompting concerns about its effects on young people's psychological and spiritual well-being. This study examined the relationship between college students’ attitudes toward social media and their level of spirituality within the framework of theology and student formation. Using a quantitative, descriptive-correlational design, data were collected from 372 students across various departments of a Catholic university in Pampanga, selected through stratified random sampling. Two standardized instruments were utilized: the Social Media Attitude Scale (Otrar & Argin, 2013) and the Spirituality Questionnaire (Hardt et al., 2011). Data analysis involved descriptive statistics and Spearman’s rank-order correlation due to non-normal distribution. Results revealed a statistically significant but modest relationship between social media attitudes and spirituality, indicating that while social media may influence aspects such as mindfulness or the search for meaning, it is not a primary determinant of spiritual life. The findings highlight the complex, multifaceted nature of spirituality, shaped more by personal, cultural, and relational factors than digital behavior.

Keywords:

Catholic University, Social Media, Spirituality, student's attitudes, spiritual activities

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biography

Jonald De Leon, Holy Angel University

Dr. Jonald C. De Leon is an Associate Professor at Holy Angel University in Angeles City, Philippines, where he is a member of the Christian Living Education Department (CLE) under the Institute for Christian Formation and Social Integration (ICFSI). Dr. de Leon furthered his expertise by earning Master of Arts in Religious Education and a PhD in Educational Management from Holy Angel University, after acquiring a strong foundation in philosophy from Mother of Good Counsel Seminary in San Fernando, Pampanga. He is deeply passionate about theology, religion, and environmental education, and he engages college students through dynamic theology courses, fostering profound insights that shape minds and hearts.

References

[1] ABS-CBN News. (2016, September 11). Internet, social media dahilan ng pagtaas ng teenage pregnancy? https://news.abs-cbn.com/video/focus/09/11/16/internet-social-media-dahilan-ng-pagtaas-ng-teenage-pregnancy

[2] Alleyne, P., McClean, C., & Harper, A. (2013). Examining personal values and ethical behaviour perceptions between accounting and non-accounting students in the Caribbean. The Accounting Educators’ Journal, 23, 47–70. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260506903_Examining_Personal_Values_and_Ethical_Behaviour_Perceptions_between_Accounting_and_Non-accounting_Students_in_the_Caribbean

[3] Amedie, J. (2015). The impact of social media on society (Student paper). Santa Clara University. https://scholarcommons.scu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=engl_176

[4] Anderson, M., & Smith, A. (2018). Social media use in 2018: A majority of Americans use Facebook and YouTube, but young adults are especially heavy users of Snapchat and Instagram. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2018/02/PI_2018.03.01_Social-Media_FINAL.pdf

[5] Armstrong, T. (2019). Mindfulness in the classroom: Strategies for promoting concentration, compassion, and calm. ASCD.

[6] Asha, N., Shashikala, & Nandini, S. (2017). Impact of social networking sites on academic performance of students. International Conference People Connect: Networking for Sustainable Development, 200. http://www.ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRTICPN033.pdf

[7] Balanza, M., & Tindowen, D. (2019). The effects of media exposure on students’ core values. International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education, 6(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-0381.0602001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20431/2349-0381.06020001

[8] Ballan, V. (2021). COVID-19 pandemic, telepresence, and online masses: Redefining Catholic sacramental theology. https://www.academia.edu/44562587/COVID_19_Pandemic_Telepresence_and_Online_Masses_Redefining_Catholic_Sacramental_Theology DOI: https://doi.org/10.18848/2324-755X/CGP/v16i01/41-53

[9] Baring, R., Lee, R., Sta. Maria, M., & Liu, Y. (2016). Configurations of student spirituality/religiosity: Evidence from a Philippine university. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 21, 163–176. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1364436X.2016.1207617

[10] Beth Ann Mulligan. (2018). The Dharma of modern mindfulness: Discovering the Buddhist teachings at the heart of mindfulness-based stress reduction. New Harbinger Publications.

[11] Brandenberger, J. W., & Bowman, N. A. (2013). From faith to compassion: Reciprocal influences of spirituality, religious commitment, and prosocial development during college. In A. B. Rockenbach & M. J. Mayhew (Eds.), Spirituality in college students’ lives: Translating research into practice (pp. 121–137). Routledge.

[12] Bryson, K. A. (2014). What is spirituality - meaning and definition. Pallipedia. https://pallipedia.org/spirituality/

[13] Brennan, D. (2021). How spirituality affects mental health. WebMD. https://www.webmd.com/balance/how-spirituality-affects-mental-health

[14] Chaffey, D. (2022). Global social media statistics research summary 2022. Smart Insights. https://www.smartinsights.com/social-media-marketing/social-media-strategy/new-global-social-media-research/#:~:text=More%20than%20half%20of%20the,social%20media%20is%202h%2027m

[15] Chaiklin, H. (2011). Attitudes, behavior, and social practice. Journal of Social Service Work. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3583&context=jssw DOI: https://doi.org/10.15453/0191-5096.3583

[16] Chenot, D., & Kim, H. (2013). Development among adolescents and young adults: Longitudinal linkages between spirituality, religion, and social justice. In A. B. Rockenbach & M. J. Mayhew (Eds.), Spirituality in college students’ lives: Translating research into practice (pp. 138–152). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203118979-22

[17] Cifelli, K. (2021). Social media and how it affects our self-image. https://www.fau.edu/thrive/students/thrive-thursdays/ourselfimage/index.php

[18] Critcher, C. R., & Lee, C. J. (2018). Feeling is believing: Inspiration encourages belief in God. Psychological Science. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0956797617743017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617743017

[19] De, K. (2008). Social media study: Universal McCann Power To The People - Wave 3 report. Social Media Today. https://www.socialmediatoday.com/content/social-media-study-universal-mccann-power-people-wave-3-report#:~:text=Well%20look%20no%20further%20than,people%20are%20using%20social%20media.

[20] del Castillo, F. A., Biana, H. T., & Joaquin, J. J. B. (2020). ChurchInAction: The role of religious interventions in times of COVID-19. Journal of Public Health, 42(3), 633–635. https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article/42/3/633/5856780 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdaa086

[21] Dy, M. F. R., & Dy, M. E. R. I. (2024). Connectedness to nature, spirituality, and resilience among selected Filipino adolescents. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Analysis, 7(5), Article 23.

[22] Elsayed, W. (2021). The negative effects of social media on the social identity of adolescents from the perspective of social work. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(3), Article 1145. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7905185/ DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06327

[23] Fatoki, O. (2011). The impact of firm and entrepreneurial characteristics on access to debt finance by SMEs in King Williams’ Town, South Africa. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 2(1), 93–99. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Olawale-Fatoki/publication/271316991_The_Impact_of_Firm_and_Entrepreneurial_Characteristics_on_Access_to_Debt_Finance_by_SMEs_in_King_Williams’_Town_South_Africa/links/5ca3a183299bf1b86d60db73/The-Impact-of-Firm-and-Entrepreneurial-Characteristics-on-Access-to-Debt-Finance-by-SMEs-in-King-Williams-Town-South-Africa.pdf DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v6n8p170

[24] Fisher, J. (2011). The four domains model: Connecting spirituality, health and well-being. Religions, 2(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2010017 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2010017

[25] Floody, D. R. (2014). Serenity and inner peace: Positive perspectives. In G. K. Sims, L. L. Nelson, & M. R. Puopolo (Eds.), Personal peacefulness: Psychological perspectives (pp. 107–133). Springer Science + Business Media. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9366-2_5

[26] Foreman. (2019, November 1). 10 types of social media and how each can benefit your business. Social Media Marketing & Management Dashboard. https://blog.hootsuite.com/types-of-social-media/

[27] Fuller, R. C., & Parsons, W. B. (2018). Spiritual but not religious: A brief introduction. In W. B. Parsons (Ed.), Being spiritual but not religious: Past, present, future(s) (pp. 15–29). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315107431-2

[28] Galang, J. R. F. (2022). Social media as tool for the Church’s mission and response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Public Health (Oxford), 44(3), e413–e414. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab263 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab263

[29] Geçtan, E. (2004). Varoluş ve psikiyatri [Existence and psychiatry]. Remzi Kitabevi.

[30] Gillath, O., & Fraley, R. C. (2016). What is the attachment behavioral system? And, how is it linked to other behavioral systems? https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/sense-of-security DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-420020-3.00008-6

[31] Gok, T. (2016). The effects of social networking sites on students’ studying and habits. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 2(1), 85–90. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1105127.pdf DOI: https://doi.org/10.21890/ijres.10682

[32] Good, M. (2011). Exploring the development and psychosocial correlates of spirituality/religiosity across adolescence (Doctoral dissertation). Brock University.

[33] Good, M., & Willoughby, T. (2014). Institutional and personal spirituality/religiosity and psychosocial adjustment in adolescence: Concurrent and longitudinal associations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(5), 757–774. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9989-2

[34] Grinde, B. (2022). Role of happiness when evaluating society. Encyclopedia, 2(1), 230–236. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia2010014 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia2010014

[35] Hanson, R. (2016). What is your sense of peace? Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/your-wise-brain/201611/what-is-your-sense-peace

[36] Harman. (2019, May 23). How social media affects relationships positively and negatively. Thrive Global: Behavior Change Platform Reducing Employee Stress and Burnout, Enhancing Performance and Well-Being. https://thriveglobal.com/stories/how-social-media-affects-relationships-positively-and-negatively/#:~:text=Bonding%3A%20Social%20media%20allows%20family,interests%2C%20hobbies%2C%20and%20more

[37] Hayaty, S. (2018). When Facebook was founded (1st ed.). Dar al-Sharq.

[38] Hendricks, D. (2013, May 8). Complete History of Social Media: Then And Now. Small Business Trends. https://smallbiztrends.com/2013/05/the-complete-history-of-social-media-infographic.html#:~:text=Internet%20relay%20chats%2C%20or%20IRCs,make%20friends%20with%20other%20users

[39] Hodges, M. I., & Logan, C. D. (2012). Psychology of attitudes. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

[40] John, A. M. (2017). Student attitudes on social media and perception of instructor social media use (Master’s thesis, University of Louisville). University of Louisville Institutional Repository. https://ir.library.louisville.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3841&context=etd

[41] Jones, B. N. (2021). The influence of social media on murder (Master’s thesis, California State University, San Bernardino). ScholarWorks. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2239&context=etd

[42] Kam, J. W. Y., Javed, J., Hart, C. M., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., Tomfohr-Madsen, L. M., & Mills, C. (2022). Daily mindfulness training reduces negative impact of COVID-19 news exposure on affective well-being. Psychological Research, 86(4), 1203–1214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-021-01550-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-021-01550-1

[43] Kapoor, K. K., Tamilmani, K., Rana, N. P., Patil, P., Dwivedi, Y. K., & Nerur, S. (2018). Advances in social media research: Past, present, and future. Information Systems Frontiers. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-017-9810-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-017-9810-y

[44] Karakaya, I., Sata, M., Corbaci, E., & Cetin, B. (2018). An investigation of the factors that affect high school students’ attitudes towards social media by CHAID analysis. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 76, 21–40. https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2018.76.2

[45] Lakovakis, C. (n.d.). Requesting permissions to use and reproduce instruments in a thesis/dissertation. https://info.library.okstate.edu/ld.php?content_id=50764734

[46] Luhrmann, T. M., Weisman, K., Aulino, F., Brahinsky, J. D., Dulin, J. C., Dzokoto, V. A., Legare, C. H., Lifshitz, M., Ross-Zehnder, N., Ng, E., & Smith, R. (2021). Sensing the presence of gods and spirits across cultures and faiths. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2016649118 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2016649118

[47] Magin, Z. E., David, A. B., Carney, L. M., Park, C. L., Gutierrez, I. A., & George, L. S. (2021). Belief in God and psychological distress: Is it the belief or certainty of the belief? Religions, 12(9), 757. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel1209075 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090757

[48] Makhutla, N. E. (2021). Effectiveness of Using Social Media for Preaching During Covid-19 Lockdown. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351338019_Effectiveness_of_Using_Social_Media_for_Preaching_During_Covid-19_Lockdown DOI: https://doi.org/10.46222/pharosjot.102.22

[49] Manago, A., & Vaughn, L. (2015). Social media, friendship, and happiness in the millennial generation. SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9603-3_11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9603-3_11

[50] Mawson, T. J. (2005). Belief in God: An introduction to the philosophy of religion. Clarendon Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199276318.001.0001

[51] Mohamed, M. (2019). Definition of Facebook (1st ed., p. 6). Dar al-Sharq.

[52] Moussa, N. M., & Ali, W. F. (2022). Exploring the relationship between students’ academic success and happiness levels in the higher education settings during the lockdown period of COVID-19. Psychological Reports, 125(2), 986–1010. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294121994568 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294121994568

[53] Murata-Soraci, K. (2014). Psychology of Mindfulness. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

[54] Mwilambwe-Tshilobo, L., Ge, T., Chong, M., Ferguson, M. A., Misic, B., Burrow, A. L., Leahy, R. M., & Spreng, R. N. (2019). Loneliness and meaning in life are reflected in the intrinsic network architecture of the brain. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 14(4), 423–433. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsz021 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsz021

[55] Naruse, K. (2017, September 21). 7 ways social media can benefit mental health. Painted Brain. https://paintedbrain.org/editorial/7-ways-social-media-can-benefit-mental-health-2/

[56] Norton, K. R., & Griffith, G. M. (2020). The Impact of Delivering Mindfulness-Based Programmes in Schools: A Qualitative Study. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 29(9), 2623–2636. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01717-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01717-1

Ocampo, A. C., Mansukhani, R. T., Mangrobang, B. M. C., & Juan, A. M. G. (2013). Influences and perceived impact of spirituality on Filipino adolescents. Philippine Journal of Psychology, 46(1), 89–113.

[57] O’Keeffe, G. S., & Clarke-Pearson, K. (2011). The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics, 127, 800-804. http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0054 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0054

[58] Oman. D. (2013). Defining religion and spirituality. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality (2nd Ed., pp. 23-47). New York, USA: Guilford Publications, Inc.

[59] Otrar, M., & Argin, F. S. (2013, June). A scale development study to determine the attitude of students towards social media. Paper presented at the 7th International Computers and Instructional Technologies Conference, Atatürk University, Erzurum.

[60] Özdogan, A. Ç. (2021). Subjective well-being and social-emotional loneliness of university students: The mediating effect of the meaning of life. Journal of Pedagogical Research, 5(1), 18–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2021066865

[61] Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652–657. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0070 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0070

[62] Przywara, B., Adamski, A., Kiciński, A., Szewczyk, M., & Jupowicz-Ginalska, A. (2021). Online live-stream broadcasting of the Holy Mass during the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland as an example of the mediatisation of religion: Empirical studies in the field of mass media studies and pastoral theology. Religions, 12(4), 261. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12040261 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12040261

[63] Polkinghorne, J. C. (1998). Belief in God in an age of science. Yale University Press.

[64] Pulchalski, C., Ferrell, B., Virani, R., Otis-Green, S., et al. (2009). Improving the quality of spiritual care as a dimension of palliative care: The report of the consensus conference. Journal of Palliative Medicine, 12(7), 886–904. https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2009.0272 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2009.0142

[65] Rautela, S., & Sharma, A. (2019). Spirituality and social media: Connecting the dots. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335647132_Spirituality_and_Social_Media_Connecting_the_Dots DOI: https://doi.org/10.3991/ijim.v13i09.8863

[66] Reliance on social media in today’s society. (2012, June 25). Insegment. https://www.insegment.com/blog/reliance-on-social-media-in-todays-society/#:~:text=In%20today’s%20society%2C%20the%20use,%2C%20create%2C%20and%20spread%20information.

[67] Resurreccion, R. R., & Mansukhani, R. T. (2009). Spirituality among Filipino adolescents. Philippine Journal of Psychology, 42(2), 271–290. Retrieved from https://animorepository.dlsu.edu.ph/faculty_research/8717

[68] Ron, V. (2020). The Importance of Feeling Safe in Order to be Fully Present, Peaceful, and Live your Healthiest Life. https://www.ourbond.com/the-importance-of-feeling-safe-in-order-to-be-fully-present-peaceful-and-live-your-healthiest-life/

[69] Sagiv, L., Roccas, S., Cieciuch, J., & Schwartz, S. (2017). Personal values in human life. Nature Human Behaviour, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0185-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0185-3

[70]Samraj, T. (2019). What the Believer Should Know about Beliefs Associated with God. International Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Society, 9(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.18848/2154-8633/CGP/v09i01/1-11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18848/2154-8633/CGP/v09i01/1-11

[71] Saricali, M., Satici, S. A., Satici, B., Gocet-Tekin, E., & Griffiths, M. D. (2022). Fear of COVID-19, Mindfulness, Humor, and Hopelessness: A Multiple Mediation Analysis. International Journal of Mental Health & Addiction, 20(4), 2151–2164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00419-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00419-5

[72] Schmidt, M., & Vandewater, E. (2008). Media and Attention, Cognition, and School Achievement. The Future of Children Journal, 18(1), 63-77. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20053120?origin=JSTOR-pdf&seq=1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.0.0004

[73] Scott, E. (2020). What Is Spirituality? https://www.verywellmind.com/how-

spirituality-can-benefit-mental-and-physical-health-3144807

[74] Singer, I. (2010). Meaning in life: The creation of value. The MIT Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262513562.001.0001

[75] Singh, A. (2021). Positive and Negative Effect of Social Media on Education. The Asian School. https://www.theasianschool.net/blog/positive-negative-effect-of-social-media-on-education/

[76] Social Medi and Mental Health. (n.d.). https://www.helpguide.org/articles/mental-health/social-media-and-mental-health.htm

[77] Stewart Goetz. (2012). The Purpose of Life: A Theistic Perspective. Continuum.

[78] Stratton, C., Krumrei-Mancuso, E. J., & Miller-Perrin, C. (2022). The Moderating Effect of Mindfulness on the Relationship Between Problematic Smartphone Usage and Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 27(2), 113–123. https://doi.org/10.24839/2325-7342.JN27.2.113 DOI: https://doi.org/10.24839/2325-7342.JN27.2.113

[79] Summer, A. (2019). Social media’s growing impact on our lives. American Psychology of Association. https://www.apa.org/members/content/social-media-research

[80] The impact of social media: Is it irreplaceable? (2019). Knowledge Wharton. https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/impact-of-social-media/

[81] The Importance of the Internet in Life. (2015, April 6). https://www.nexdatacenter.com/the-importance-of-internet-in-life-now-and-tomorrow/#:~:text=It%20knows%20no%20boundary%20but,most%20important%20tools%20of%20communication.

[82] The psychology of social media. (2019, September 12). King University Online. https://online.king.edu/news/psychology-of-social-media/

[83] Thinane, J. S. (2022). The use of social media by churches during the COVID-19 pandemic in South Africa. In Advances in human factors in training, education, and learning sciences (pp. xx-xx). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08034-0_9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08034-0_9

[84] Thomas, T. (2013). The effect of personal values, organizational values, and person-organization fit on ethical behaviors and organizational commitment outcomes among substance abuse counselors: A preliminary investigation [Doctoral dissertation, Iowa Research Online]. https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.uzvjk997 DOI: https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.uzvjk997

[85] UNICEF. (2022). Philippines sees increase in cyber tip reports in 2021; UNICEF calls for collective action on Safer Internet Day. https://www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/philippines-sees-increase-cyber-tip-reports-2021-unicef-calls-collective-action

[86] Weiten, W., Dunn, D. S., & Hammer, E. Y. (2015). Psychology applied to modern life: Adjustment in the 21st century. Wadsworth, Cengage.

[87] What are your values? – Deciding what’s most important in life. (n.d.). Management training and leadership training - Online. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_85.htm

[88] What is mindfulness? (n.d.). Greater Good Magazine. https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/topic/mindfulness/definition

[89] Wigelsworth, M., & Quinn, A. (2020). Mindfulness in schools: An exploration of teachers’ perceptions of mindfulness-based interventions. Pastoral Care in Education, 38(4), 293–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2020.1725908 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02643944.2020.1725908

[90] Wigmore, I. (n.d.). What is social media? WhatIs.com. https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/social-media

[91] Wonderly, M. (2019). On the effect of security. Philosophical Topics, 47(2), 165–182. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26948112 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5840/philtopics201947221

[92] Woods, R. (1989). Christian spirituality: God’s presence through the ages. Thomas More Press.

[93] Yilmaz, O., & Isler, O. (2019). Reflection increases belief in God through self-questioning among non-believers. Judgment and Decision Making, 16(6), 649–657. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S1930297500005374

[94] Zandroto, I. J. (2021). COVID-19 and the mission of the Church: Some notes on the new normal. International Bulletin of Mission Research, 45(4), 346–354. https://doi.org/10.1177/23969393211034603 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/23969393211034603